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Aissors, who now live in the mountains around Julamerk, in and around Urmia and Mosul, are included in the group of Semitic peoples. The Aissoriah heritage is relative to Arabic and Hebrew, Aissors obviously are descendants from ancient Assyrians who inhabited in and around Nineveh (near Mosul) in the old times. As a matter of fact, Aissors might have quite different names in the history like Syrians, Chaldeans, Syro-Chaldeahs, Nestorians, Nasranis. The name of Syrians seems to be more relative to the Semitic tribes living in Syria, and unlike them Aissors are called sometimes Eastern Syrians. The name of Chaldeans usually is given to those Aissors who became Catholic. Nestorians are those Aissors who belong to the Eastern Christian Church or to the Nestorian Church named after Nestor the Constantinople Patriarch.

The name of Nasranis is equivalent to the name of Christians and stems from the name of Nazareth for Jesus Christ was called the man from Nazareth. The name of Assuri, which seemingly stems from the name of Assyrians, existed for very long years in the past so that the Kurdish historian of the 16th century Sheref Uddin wrote that there was a tribe of 'unscrupulous' Christians who lived in Dez in the 16th century with the name of Assurs.

In the Russian language this name was transformed into Aissors As a matter of fact, I may presume that this; name of Aissors is the most suitable for the. Entire nation. In contrast the names of Nestorians.” and Chaldeans might be applied to their religious orientation

Aissors are the remnants of the people who used to be found everywhere in Nineveh. They still can be found in some small members somewhere between Mosul and Julamerk and also in some neighboring countries, in the west, they are in Seert, and in the east, around the lake of Urmia.

There was a time when Aissors were the major non-nomadic tribe in the area. Then they little by little became extinct and/or dispersed and scattered down in the world, so that now there are only a couple of regions with a big Aissors population, namely1 high in the mountains south of Julamerk, and (2) in and around Urmia. Elsewhere, they only constitute small tribal groups, embedded in the predominating Kurdish population.

Both major Aissors populations were different in character though they kept to good terms as well as the language they spoke in. The character of a nation is regularly formed by the life itself. And the living conditions were different in those groups as well.

Aissors who lived in the mountains were always independent. The Aissors in the valley ousted by Mongols and Muslims had to climb up to reach impassable ridges of the upper Zab River so that they could survive, keep to their religion and stay in the possession of their wealth.

The continuous feuds with the neighboring tribes, the wild life around, hard labor in crop fields and in the household as well as the direct clerical influence, all taken together would finally shape the character of the small. Nation. Unlike them the Aissors in and around Urmia were ruled by Persia and constantly oppressed by landowners and Kurds locally. Besides, there were many fields and gardens around Urmia, and many routes that led to Russia where Aissors could find some odd jobs. Therefore life in the plains was very different. Afterwards I shall tell you more about the life of Aissors and their nature, now I think I must explain something, I mean to say that Aissors cannot be de- scribed as one whole nation because Aissors in other areas they might belong either to one group or another depending on their location.

In the places I visited and in the areas around Aissors could fall into the following characteristic groups

1) Aissors who live in ashirates in the mountains south of Julamerk, namely, in Dez (350 homes), Jilu (1.000 homes), Baz (460 homes), Tkhoma (840 homes), Upper and Lower Tyari (3.100 homes), totally 5.750 homes;

2) Aissors who live near ashirates and if that is the case can be considered identical: Tal (255 homes), Levin (70), Julamerk (45), Barvar (120), Chal (75), Barvar-roud (140), totally 705 homes;

4) Aissors scattered in other parts of Hakkiari: around Serai (110 homes), in the valley of Gjavar (450), in Shamdinan (200), in Al- bak (150), totally 910 homes;

5) Aissors in Mosul and around, in Seerts, Zakho, etc. On the last I hold no information unfortunately.

The essential core of all Aissors is those who are given in (1), and (2) with a total number of homes up to 6.500.

In the past all of Aissors were Nestorians, but then they fell under the influence of different missionaries and began to change their religion. For example, catholic missionaries who arrived in Mosul, Van and Urmia converted the most of Aissors that were given in (5). In Urmia, besides catholic workers, there were Orthodox missionaries so many Aissors in Urmia were converted to Orthodox belief. Moreover, American, English and recently German missionaries have been trying to work with Nestorians as well. They all want to change the essence of the religion without changing its name. Despite those efforts (1 shall tell of them in detail below) the center of Aissors remained the stronghold of Nestorians. And Aissors considered Mar Shimmun, the Nestorian Patriarch, to be their religious leader. The name of Mar Shimmun means 'my lord, Simon'. Actually this name was? Adopted by Nestorian patriarchs four centuries ago. They all came from the 'Shimmun' family, and the present-day patriarch Benyamin at 22 is the eighteenth clerical leader "", under the name of Shimmun. This role is inherited in one and the same family, and as Mar Shimmun is never allowed to merry, the elder son of his brother is normally the heir. According to the law and traditions of the Church, Mar Shimmun cannot eat meat, so boys chosen for this role should fast from f their early days. Even the woman who expects the future Mar Shlmmun cannot eat meat either.

Mar Shimmun is to be brought into this Role by Metropolitan bishop of Shamdinan who is the highest authority after him. The Turkish government to be the leader of the Nestorian Church as well as to be the authority in ashirates accepts Mar. Shimmun. Highly regarded by every Nestorian Mar Shimmun holds the highest authority indeed, much higher than the administration allows. All dispute in the mountains are always handled and solved by him only as well as brutal feuds that even might come along with homicide sometimes. For example, one homicide just happened when I was myself in the mountains. Mar Shimmun seems like a small king, and every word he utters is accepted without a doubt. However, the missionary activity recently has brought some contradiction in the tribal life in the mountains. The liberal youth suggests that the Turkish authority should handle all disputes. The longtime unity of the nation, which empowered them and kept them whole and wealthy, begins to break up now. Mar I Shimmun starts to lose his grip on power and authority as well. This way the nation is becoming vulnerable to penetration of Turkish tyranny and fanatics.

The family Council under Mar Shimmun assists him in ruling Nestorians in the mountains. After the death of the present Mar I Shimmun father, the highest authority is shifted to his sister Surmi (a 24-year old girl who became a nun; actually she is smart, intelligent, full of energy and with a good English knowledge). Mar Shimmun's wealth is never considerable, as he only gets a small tax per capita from Nestorian males and some returns from a few churches as well as penalties imposed by him for some faults. Besides, the Turkish government gave him a pension in 15 Turkish liras per month last year while the British missionaries pay him the rent for a dwelling house in Kochanis. As a matter of fact, Mar Shimmun needs more money to support his large family and patriarchal delegation.

The present day Mar Shimtl1un Benyamin,' is a very sympathetic man. The severed life of a monk has made him very humble giving him a loving soul, and a kind heart to boot. Yet his eyes are full of sorrow as he sees the poverty of his own nation or hears of never ending oppression and plunder of his church people, knowing that he is unable to help them out. At any rate his concern for the people doubled by his ardent activity has developed in him a good measure of persistency and practicality.

The authority second to Mar Shimmun is Matran (Bishop) of Shamdinan. Matran consecrated Mar Shimmun to his service and is somewhat in charge of him. As a matter pf fact, he is a 60-year-old man, very intelligent, sensible. As he has suffered very much during his lifetime, l1e knows many things so people usually hold great respect for him. He never leaves one very old monastery where he lives. He used to gather a lot of people in the church, but many then fled as the oppression from sheik of Shamdinan grew more. However he managed to find a common language with the shakh due to his criticism and mildness. During my meeting with Matran he never complained as if he was afraid to make it really. And only when I was about to leave, after a very interesting talk we had for hours, he told me, 'Sheik is good enough, but if you can, 'please, try to change his attitude towards Christians' .The post of Matran and that of Bishop are to be inherited just like the post of Mar Shimmun goes directly: from uncle to nephew within one family.

Bishops as well as priests do not playa significant role in the life of the region. I personally made acquaintance with two of them, namely, Mar Sargis of Jelu and Mar Dynkha of Urmia. Mar Sargis, a youth of 18 years old with a puffy indifferent face and dull eyes left me uninspired. Mar Dynkha, a 45 year old bishop, who works for Mar Shimmun in Urmia seemed very mediocre, too. The third bishop who was in Gyavar died a year ago and successor has not been assigned until recently. The fourth bishop in Amadia adopted Catholicism. As for the priests they do look similar to ordinary villagers though they are respected and honored.

Mar Shimmun is one who administers the civic life in every ashirate. He selects and assigns maliks to lead the way in ashirates. Maliks are to be chosen from local aristocracy. Mar Shimmun has the right to dismiss maliks as well, but on many occasions he confers with the interests of the ashirate. Malik being laid off from power will never lose his title and respect from people. Therefore, there can be several maliks in one ashirate (for example, there are three of them in the lower Tyari, Dynkho, Barkho and Elda).

Aissors stem from the Semitic race (just like Jews and Arabs). They descended from Assyrians who liked in and around Niveveh. Being driven away into high mountains impassable for the most of the year. Aissors had kept to the old customs and traditions of the civilizations that existed in the first ages of Christianity; on the other hand, they had inherited somehow some wild ways from the neighboring Kurds. The social structure in Aissorian ashirates is very similar to that of Kurds. They also have maliks as their leaders invested with full authority just like Kurdish chiefs of ashirates. Actually the same customs and laws, though in some way Aissors are even a little more savage than Kurds. Kurds had a very severed life full of strives and persecutions hundred years before they took control over their land. They have maintained their own law and order for several centuries already. Aissors are still persecuted so they have to fight tooth and nail to keep the little bits of the wealth they used to have before. This continuous struggle makes them more savage and wilder than Kurds.

Nestorians who have always been persecuted because of their religion have been attached to it more in the form than in the spirit. All the handouts they hear in the church they stick to, such as fasting time. The cross is the only image they have (no icons). It is a very famous symbol among Nestorians, as they worship it and display it everywhere. On holidays they like to wear brocaded garments with woven crosses made in Jezireh. Their rooms in the dwelling houses are decorated with Christian crosses painted on paper with excerpts from Holy Scriptures in Syrian. They take their time to kiss on the cross they like to fasten above the low-profile door to the church. Very often one can see stones scattered on the side of the road. Every stone has across engraved on its surface so that every traveler could kneel and pray in worship. The religion they have been persecuted for is deeply rooted in item. They' have proved to be fanatical especially high in the mountains so they cannot stand dealing with any missionaries, but I shall tell you more about it below.

Aissors have known a very old culture in- deed, whilst Kurds in the other parts of the Van region are dirty and poor in full apathy doing cattle breeding mainly and if they do some grain growing, they do it in small numbers and in the old primitive way; Aissors have very good houses with clean and large rooms. Grain is their main agricultural product. They do a lot of manual work on the land, digging the ground with shovel only so they are considered to be best farmers in the country. That is why Kurds in Persia have Aissors in the villages to work in the field.

The women are allowed to uncover their faces. They are allowed everywhere they go. But living side by side with Kurds Aissors has become in a way just as savage and wild as them. Turks and Kurds avoid travel- ling across the mountains, as they are afraid to be held up and robbed or even murdered. In December 1906 a squad of 50 soldiers marching way back from the Kurdish ashirate Chal to the south of Nestorian mountains experienced a heavy snowfall so that they should change their route cutting their way through the valley of Tyari. Aissors, who took eight rifles from their privates, held up the soldiers. And when Aissors tried to capture the officer’s gun, the latter shot and killed one Aissor. The soldiers began to fire, and Aissors had to retreat with the trophies. Later Mar Shimmun returned those rifles to the Turkish authorities. Legend has it that Aissorian women held up and tied up some strangers who were trying to cut through the mountains. The women threw them into the Zab river. The people still remember this and take it as a heroic deed. When I wanted to go to the mountains, British missionaries warned me against it, trying to save me from much trouble then. In fact the local villagers in Tyari held me up. My servant was bitten, and his rifle was taken. I, myself, was nearly stripped off. But when they found out that I was not a missionary but a Russian vice-consul. They urged that my servant should swear in it any way. After all they changed their mind. My rifle was immediately returned and they let me go with honors. The villagers complained about the role of missionaries who had only brought them, misfortune. They said that because of missionaries the Turkish authorities bore more grudge against them. In other words, If 1 were a missionary, I would have left off without my baggage. The wild and savage characters of this small people can be explained by the necessity of every day struggle for life. And wherever this struggle holds up I (just like in Persia), the wildness, just slips away.

Before analysis of every ashirate with as of its details and peculiarities, I should like to touch upon general features of the whole Aissorian population of the mountains.

Aissors are of medium height, strongly built. As they live in the very rigorous climate on a terrain where neither horse nor bull could ever come by, Aissors have to walk to their scraps of land to work the manual job. This job has strengthened them so that they can walk 40 to 50 kilometers per day along the least passable paths. They are able to pass through mountains and ravines. They like goats can sneak among the rock and trot along the cliffs balancing over the abyss. A 60-year-old man with white hair, a priest of Levine walked in those days to Van from Julamerk. Actually he looked fresh enough. He remembered covering on a day hike the distance (75 km) from Levine to Bashkala. As matter of fact he set on a journey way back home the following day. I saw myself how Aissors came down the mountains to reach the valleys that were about three thou- sand feet deep carrying heaps of hay on their shoulders along just passable paths. I saw myself how people alone rolled huge wooden logs of the trees they had chopped in the mountains before. They never have horses or bulls to use in work. They do everything by hand. For this quality Aissors used to be infantry soldiers in the land. For example" Kurds always liked to use them in the battle- field.

Aissors are very brave and courageous. Over centuries they have been prepared to face any danger and never give up in any circumstances. For this they like to climb steep slopes even at the risk of a fall. Also they have many times experienced avalanche, fast streams or rivers, which they had to cross. . And the last but never the least danger is ~ when they can be attacked by Kurds. As it was told in the previous episode where 8 rifles were taken from 50 soldiers, only two unarmed Aissors came up to say that the rest of Aissors were lurking close the rocks ready to attack. Next, the two of them demanded four rifles, took them and walked away. Half an hour later another crowd of unarmed Aissors came and took four more rifles. And as they were trying to snatch one more from the officer this time, the aforesaid accident happened.

When we were making a passage from Dez to Jilu high in the mountains at the foot of Syp-Durek that was the area where Kurds of Drawar usually made their raids, we were joined by several half-naked poor Aissors and lone stocky Nestorian from Jilu (his name was Gewargis), He carried a rifle, and he kept watching all around as if he was trying to remember all the details of the terrain. In this way he saw the tracks of someone's halt below. He told the interpreter that it was where Kurds probably had rested for a while. We tracked them down up in the mountains to the west and soon we came into a place where Kurdish raiders usually hid themselves. Gewargis said to the interpreter in Kurdish 4 immediately, "we must be like brothers from now on. I will scratch your back, and you will scratch mine". My interpreter just swore to it. They shook their hands and Gewargis made his tracks towards the Kurdish area. We just followed him. So I was at the head of this caravan having my interpreter on my left side, and Gewargis on the other side, and the soldiers in the middle. Besides, the caravan also comprised those beggars, horses with the loot and as many as 20 sheep creeping be- hind just to be delivered with best security from the Russian vice consul. In 10 minutes we saw two Kurds up the road lurking amidst the rock. Gewagis almost ran to them in a fast attack. The interpreter and the soldier ran to follow him. The Kurds fled to the mountains, so we could pass without a doubt. Why am I telling you all this? Maybe, I just want to show how courageous and resolute Aissors can be in the face of danger.

Aissors are very capable and industrious, as I was traveling in the place inhabited by Kurds and then in the place where only Aissors could well be found, I was struck by the difference between their modes of life at the time. All we saw in the land including houses, farming, arrangement, clothes, general appearances showed that Aissors were capable, hard working and even intelligent.

Some Aissors like traveling far and wide. And wherever they go, they can easily pick up customs, traditions and manners as well as the languages of Europeans. Despite the lack of practical use of the language they once picked up they do not seem to have forgotten it completely. And I remember speaking with someone who could say a few words in Russian after only a week's stay in the native country of the language. While you just sit and talk with them, you can think of them not as wild ignorant and savage villagers from the most impassible mountains in the world. Nice talking, consideration and polite- ness in their easy-going and naive manner, when they speak of big politics, world and nations, you feel like you are in he company of good-humored shop assistants from up- scale stores or just Russian industrial workers if you know what I mean. Anyone who has spent a year or so in a foreign land is found to wear something in the look so typical of the people he was mixed with. Clever eyes, reasonable words, and clear answers in the absence of confusion I was amazed to find even in children. The child of Aissors is a very frisky bright boy who can be very curious and inquisitive, straight forward and open hearted. As a matter of fact, he has got nothing to do with dull Kurdish children looking dimly out from the corner of the street.

Aissors as well as Jews are known to be the Semitic race. Therefore they have the same good qualities, but unlike Jews they luckily never deal with money lending or any other similar operations. It is, however, true that they can lie and fawn on someone who can give them money. But they never do it cunningly or impudently. In short I had a very nice impression of this little people.

Aissors as one crave for education. They are amazingly capable but they have no schools to teach their children well as they have no money to organize them. Missions where some schooling could be offered meet no sympathy from Aissors as missionaries pursue their own religious goals only. When I was trying to learn more about schooling in the community of Aissors, I came to visit one village Shavita (Baz). It was a village with a fairly better infrastructure. They had four Catholic Church schools. When we came, they said, "What did you come for? If you only came to see us in poverty or to destroy our religion, we don't need you, but if you want to help us organize some good regular schools, so you're welcome as we say, and we'll be grateful indeed." 111 another place I heard them say, "Why should we have these missionary schools? They only train children to be priests. So they never teach them anything that the whole world knows. We have our own priests", they said, "they can train our youth in the Gospel well. We want our youth to know languages and to get the knowledge they will be able to use on the job in the foreign land. But the youth cannot get it in the missions, nor a language at all".

All those allegations sound proof. People who have nothing to eat at home will have to seek odd jobs in the foreign land as they have failed to find any job locally. People who are capable, industrious and hard working, know no schooling at all. But every foreigner who will come there will try to teach Aissors about Christianity, the religion that has already brought them so many trials and tribulations and that they have loved so much that they once fled to the mountains in order to keep it safe. In fact they had to leave the blossoming valleys of Mesopotamia for cold and snowy mountains. They just wanted to stay in the faith which had united them, given them strength to bear themselves with dignity in difficult circumstances. It was the religion again that they had spread in the entire Asia with China included. Daniel, the priest, in the Village of Mate in Baz, runs the only school that really can be found in the mountains. Daniel was educated at the American mission in Urmia. He is a: protestant, but he calls himself a Nestorian for modesty. This school is maintained and supported by the American missionaries. Every year one of them comes for inspection and for delivery of money to the needs of school. Actually this method suggests no limit to age or number of students.

The number depends on funds and cost of living. Schooling as it is offers a course that can be similar to Russian rural schools. It includes reading and writing efforts, Arithmetic’s, some fundamental Geography and a lot of the Gospel with a great number of sermons and nothing else. Daniel the Priest never speaks against the Nestorian religion. Conversely he always tries to support it, so his school earns him a very good reputation mainly due to his own talent, sensibility and much devotion. People try to send their children to him from wherever they were. For instance, I was in early October there so I saw some applicants who had arrived from Jilu and Barwari. They were 14 or 15 years old boys with clever eyes. Actually they had I covered many miles in a hurry to be in time for school which eventually was not started until December because of money shortages. Scholars like to study there. So every youth seeks admission there. But nobody is perfect. Neither Daniel is. Criticism in the protestant vein is reflected largely in the school somehow. In his handouts Daniel assumes some- times that there is some bigger authority in the local religion than Mar Shimmun himself and imparts to his students some critical views on the matter of faith. Besides, this school with the best grades and national representation level. There are also some British and Catholic missionary schools. But only the British high schools in Van and Urmia can give satisfactory results. Now they both will be reorganized in one (Van). A school was started in Kochanis because of epidemic scarlet fever this year. In Urmia there were about 40 students under the authority of Mr. Porry at a time. In Van there were 20 students from the highest locations in the mountains. Students are mainly trained in the Gospel to make them into priests. Besides, they study the old Syrian language because it was used in all ceremonial books, and yet the new Syrian language both with full Grammar. They are also trained in Arithmetic and some very general subjects and a very little Turkish. The course lasts for three years. The scholars as a rule are 14 to .18 years old.

Rural schools started by Catholic. Protestant or Anglican churches are mainly fictitious and there is not much use in them. Though there are plenty of them. Teachers can be both very young men who graduated from American or Anglican schools and Priests sometimes. The faculty staff usually gets 2 or 3 liras (18 to 27 rubles) per year for maintenance of the school. Therefore they just do a small income so that they are interested in opening more schools in the land. Students only make their attendance in the winter after the harvest time. Students just pick up on writing and reading during the whole school time. Classes are never controlled nor skills are graded really. So there is no big use in what they do.

Farming is the principle labour Aissors really know living in a rocky terrain as they have quite a little land available for good farming. If that is the case they work sweat from early morning trying to till their little a lots. On approaching the valley Kadranis one can spot those little greenish squarish things scattered here, and there down steep slopes CI all around. Fields are arranged in terraces b made of filling ground mainly. For this purpose they have to build a 2 or 3 m high wall of stone on each side of the field. In this way f they make very narrow (5 to 10 m a side) tiny farming fields that remind me of flower 1 pots. Therefore, as they try to make the most of every lot, they leave no reservation for roads so that narrow paths are to be mounted on the crest of the walls, it is clear that as they try to make a passage on the crest of the I wall, they sometimes have to jump off from wall to wall or to climb them up using two or three fallen stones to step. The paths they make are half step or one step wide at most mules that's the only vehicle they actually use usually move along their routes built from just bare stones outside and above the sloped fields. Every spot of land has a great value. When I was in the village of Mate in Jilu, I was struck by the sound of some bursting explosions. I found out that they were trying to remove large stones from the place where a house was to be built. As a matter of fact to raise a home on a fertile soil would be simply a waste. On a tiny spot of land like this laborers try to work it most thoroughly. They mainly use wooden spades. They build water-channels to supply lands or crops with water. For this purpose they use all the water from rivers in Tkhoma sometimes. The local people normally use high yield grains to feed many of them from a tiny crop field. When I was in those valleys in early October, it was the harvest time. I found out they basically grow rice, corn and two kinds of millet that I ~"' never have seen in Russia. In a very hot climate where the valleys lie lavishly watered fields normally yield very high crops so that tiny spots of land really can supply the big families indeed. I was told that the local people harvest two crops in turn, first wheat and then millet due to a very hot climate in some places of the lower Tyari that is 2,500 feet above the sea level. Aissors spend all days in the fields. They usually do a lot of digging and watering. They have to cut every corn ear with a steely knife alone. The grains are laid to dry on the rooftops and then threshed by hand, hulled in large stone mortars with a stony gravity stamp and ground in a hand-operated mill. Women always do all this work.

Vegetable gardens are not a regular occurrence in the land. However I saw the cabbage plant in some places, but it does not grow well. Gardens are found mainly in Jilu, Tkhoma and Tyari. Nut-trees and vines are found in many places. They are never planted in gardens, but stand alone between the fields. In Tyari they make a good wine though.

I suppose Aissors can do us an important service in the future war with Turkey. Since the characteristics and the structure of Aissors were described in detail above, I should like to look at the way Aissors would be able to influence the course of military operations in the event of a war conflict.

Aissors are in strong opposition to the Turkish government so they are looking for Russian hand to topple it down. In the wars that Russia waged against Turkey Aissors expected Russians to take their lands and to drive Turks out. Aissors, I suppose, would be willing to take a side with us in the opposition to Turkey and to help us occupy the territory as far as Mosul. It was in 1855 when Russians were at, war with Turks, Aissors called us to help, and Mar Shimmun Abraham wrote to colonel Tchreschatizky as of 30th of March in the year, "Dear Colonel, I should like to be advised on a week's notice that you are starting out for Van. Just to give me enough time to prepare the troops for a march. I suppose we shall be able to take Van soon if you come to join us promptly... I should like you to make a report to Prince Bebutov and let His Highness know that I really stand by you and shall support your forces in every move... Upon the arrival of your troops in Van I pledge I shall take over in the territory between Mosul and Van... Also, I am telling you that Azdin-Sher-bek (namely Yezdanshir), a nephew to Babut- Khan-bek, was engaged in combat with Turks killing about 4,000 in uniform. After awhile he was caught by fraud by the British consul at Mosul. All Kurds under him are seeking my protection. I have ordered them to leave Christians alone and .to deal with Turks just the way they want to".

In fact only Aissors who live in the mountains or near ashirates (some 6.5 thou- sand homes totally) might revolt and change the situation by sending out some militia units. Therefore Aissors must be given a de- tailed analysis.

Highland ashirates are to be found in the central part of the high Armenian plateau sloped to Mesopotamia between the Persian border and Bitlis. Stream waters heavily eroded the slope and it is now a labyrinth of impassable canyons and steep bare rocks.

Only a few paths can be found on this slope, and if so they could well be easily de- fended by quite small army squads. The paths to Bitlis from Seert and Diarbekir are also impassable along this slope.

Highland Aissors ashirates hold a central position in a heavily eroded canyon Zaba. They are surrounded by Kurdish ashirates of the Khartoshi tribes. Shekaki tribes live in the east on and. beyond the border with Persia, and Kurds of Bohtan in the west. Khartoshi Aissors are friendly with Kurds and Mar Shimmun is a very respected person with them.

Kurds of Khartoshi who live in Hakkiari and its surroundings now in 7,420 homes and fall into a large number of ashirates which fight one another though. Obviously Aissors make the core of the Kurdish population in Hakkiari where they have 6,500 homes. Be- sides, they all hold Mar Shimmun to be their only religious leader. In all, Aissors are highly influential, and many Kurdish ashirates are not only friendly with them, but some- times they are allied with Aissors.

In the event of upsurge from Aissors many Kurdish ashirates would be likely to join them in the fight with the Turkish government. And supposing that two warriors could well be delegated from every home, Aissors alone would be able to send about 13,000 warriors. And if Aissors were allied with Kurds, the total number of the military force evidently would come around 20,000 soldiers. In fact 10,000 would have to stay in the villages, while the other half could move to pass through mountains in order to reach Van, Mosul and/or Bitlis.

As a matter of fact Aissors are very often unfriendly to Kurds of Bohtan. In 1843 to 1846 Badyr Khan Bei made several raids on the Nestorian mountains beating up Aissors very hard. Until recently Kurds of Bohtan have been the hard way with Aissorian villagers in their land. During his journey in 1907 the British Vice Consul for Van passed through many places destroyed by Kurds as well as he heard a lot of complaints about them. Therefore Aissors try to escape f1.om I Kurdish ashirates of Bohtan.

Despite massive beating or killing of Aissors in 1846 they decided to ally with Kurds of Bohtan under Yezdanshir later in 1850s in order to rise against Turkey. When it happened in 1854 Aissors hurried to group with Kurds in a riot. Yezdanshir came and took Bitlis and Mosul. The alley stayed very firm even after Yezdanshir was seized by fraud with the help of the British consul in Mosul. , Kurds came to Mar Shimmun to seek protection with him. Today the history can repeat 1 itself, and Kurds and Aissors might forget about feuds they have had and probably would come together to fight Turkey again.

In 1810 Abbas Mirza sent out a 20,000 strong army to bring down Mustafa, the emir of Julamerk and the chief of all Kurds in Hakkiari. But they were held up and dispersed by a 12,000 strong infantry unit of Nestorians supported by a 2,000 strong cavalry of Kurds. , Now as I can judge, the joint military operations of Aissors and Kurds might be organized indeed.

Aissors are bold and courageous in fighting and steady and firm on march. They just know how to be up in the mountains making sometimes very long passages in a rocky terrain. Therefore the neighboring tribes have a fear for them. The Turkish power would never make any interference in the Aissorian home affairs while Kurds never try to make a passage through Aissorian ashirates until they are allowed to. Despite their resentment of Turks and their combat qualities the upsurge of Aissors alone seems far less feasible as they need more rifles, ammunition and good training as well. I suppose we should supply to them whatever they need if we really want them to rise and defeat Turks.

According to the brief description of the region where Aissors live we shall see that the near Turkish line of the battlefield is cut from the headquarters of the fifth and sixth Russian corps just by a narrow strip of hilly impassable terrain. If we have Aissors to rise in this region, we shall have to take much trouble getting our troops to cross the terrain. If that is the case, so they will have to make their way through Kharput to reach Erzindjan or Erzerum. For this purpose we shall have to get Aissors to rise in Kurdish lands of Bohtan as well.

If our troops were to be engaged only in minor war events all along, then the uprising of Aissors alone would never be beneficial to our cause. Turks would send. Kurds of Bohtan to fight with Aissors and Kurds would inevitably take to a plunder trying to capture as many pastures and loot as they could. In this way, I am convinced they would never rise against Turks, as they are the rulers of their land. The Turkish government probably took up the wrong conception of their policy as they consider Russia to be unable to oppose them after being unfortunate in the war with Japan. In the case of a war conflict with Turkey, the Russian troops should be engaged in active operations indeed, otherwise Turks and Kurds would presume easily that we are really unable to protect Christians. So they might as well take to a plunder. Consequently, Aissors might lose their strength, while Kurds in the south would see the benefit of plundering Aissors and of taking a side with Turks. Meantime the fifth and sixth corps would move to advance towards Bitlis and Mushu safely. But the things would go wrong if only we come advancing very fast while the nizam troops concentrated in the given region should then be destroyed.

If that is a sure thing, then Aissors should rise easily and fight very promptly. We should, I suppose, be able to supply them with everything they would need, I mean, rifles, ammunition, instructors and money as well. Kurds would be bound to see we are the rulers of the land instead of Turks so they obviously would never dare to oppose Aissors. The affiliated Kurds of Khartoshi would do likewise. In this way a 20,000 strong core of Aissors and Kurds would be enough to block all passages in the mountains in the south of Van. Also, this action would bring Kurds of Bohtan to our side, as they would be bound to rise, too. Therefore, I think, we must find good contacts with them just before the war conflict. If we come advancing to the south, I guess, Kurds of Milli would begin to rise in the territory as far as Diarbekir. Ac- cording to the information I hold, Ibrahim- pasha is the best authority with them now. He is independent of the Turkish government, probably in some oppositi9n to it, and he rules his land alone. I suppose, we should come to visit him and seek friendship and loyalty with him.

At the end of the war in 1828, 1829 Earl Paskevich was constantly receiving Kurdish propositions to launch a joint operation against Turks. Those Kurds then lined in the far-off lands of Southern Kurdistan so the propositions came very late. For example, in the late 1830 when Earl Paskevich was in Tiflis, he received Petros Hazarov the Armenian who was just exhausted by perils he suffered on his long journey. Actually he had been commissioned by Mirza-agha, the chief of Yezids of Diarbekir who lived in and around the town of Redvan. Mirza-agha supposed that his envoy would find Earl Paskevich in Erzerum and offer to send out as many as 1,500 mounted and 5,000 infantrymen only in case Russians should move from Erzerum to Bitlis.

As it was said above, Southern Kurds should be in opposition to us, if we enter their territory. I suppose they would do the same in the event of Turkish invasion. The uprising of Aissors and Southern Kurds would be a success if they tried to win them- selves some independence just in the way we gave it to Hiva and Bukhara. If it happens, both Aissors and Kurds certainly will rise as one. In case they do not, many more Kurds will be found to change this yielding (and so powerless), kind, and yet unreliable Turkish authority, for a firm Christian patronage from Russia.

If we are really interested in recruiting Armenians to form militia, then we should as well encourage Aissors and Kurds to rise in defense of the said region from the south where the fifth and sixth corps are ready to advance

Aissors in Urmia are very kind and peaceful. However, we can recruit militia from some of them anyway. This force could be very useful in holding down the enemy, I mean, Turks if they move along in the annexed territory in Persia, that is a strip of land on the border, Lakhidjan, Mergever and Tergever. It is difficult to say if they will stand up and fight for independence, but if they could be paid for their job, they probably would do.

The remainder of Aissors who live in solitaire villages scattered down in Hakkiari could only be used as guides or food suppliers.

A 22-year old Patriarch, Mar Shimmun Benyamin stands at the helm of highland Aissors. The aforesaid description of his personality has just told it all. Yet this sensible and cautious young Patriarch made a very good impression on me. Everybody likes him very much. Also, he wins some sympathy with Kurds as well.

He usually selects young and active men as helpers. His sister Surmi is an influential figure in highlands as well. She is a. very sensible smart and well-educated woman. Unfortunately all missionaries except British undermines the authority of Mar Shimmun and do much harm to Aissors, too. Only the British are giving him support through a special mission at Mar Shimmun's residence. Certainly they pursue their own political interests though. In the full awareness of the importance that Aissors might have eventually in the role of a steady Christian core in Southern Kurdistan the British are trying to produce a most remarkable effect on Aissors. And they have to spend o that about 3,000 pounds a year. In an attempt to strengthen their presence in the south of Persia and Mesopotamia the British missionaries are watching our movements very closely. Having explored Southern Kurdistan better than we did, they made a good assessment of the region. They seem to fear that Russia will get Aissors to rise in Southern Kurdistan in order to find a way into Mesopotamia. That is why the British were up against Yezdanshir's uprising there in 1854, although Aissors came to join Kurds as one. And when the uprising gained its momentum in 1855, Yezdanshir took Mosul and Bitlis, the British consul at Mosul initiated negotiations between him and the Turkish government trying to make them up. In the course of the event he just gave Yezdanshir a tidy sum of money, but then the man was invited to meet the consul at his residence where he was caught and detained by fraud, and then sent to Istanbul. The uprising went down eventually. In. some way the Russian Erevan troop leader was asked by Yezdanshir many times to I move in advance to Mush and Bitlis to join him, but Russians did not respond. And Mar Shimmun Abraham who took over from Yezdanshir demanded our move to Van on a military mission. If we had moved towards Bitlis and Van in 1854-55, we certainly would have taken (a large sector of the Turkish territory to Mosul). In this way we would have found a way into Mesopotamia and eventually would have compensated our failure in the battle of Sebastopol.

Finding a way into Mesopotamia is like bringing a considerable loss to {he British policy in the region that is why England was up against Yezdanshir sending a mission to Aissors to watch our moves. The Church of England resumed negotiations with Aissors in 1868, but hesitated to send out a representative mission though. However, 8 years later as soon as Russia broke off with Turkey, the Church officials organized a mission to negotiate with Aissors. They promised Aissors some help. But in fact they just wanted to see how to prevent them from rising against the British interests. In the event of the war with Turkey, the British missionaries certainly would use all their influence to restrain Southern Kurdistan from rising. And they would by all means try to show our weak points only.

During the war with Japan the British consul of Van already made a point of using our weak positions or failures in the exaggerated fashion though. Meantime American missionaries trying to win some favor of the British vice consul preached in churches against Russia focusing on its weakness and possibility of its disintegration. In fact they nearly ended up with praying for Japanese victory in the war. As a matter of fact, we shall have to consider this counteraction from the British party anyway. If our troops should move very fast to strike against Turks, all the British allegations concerning the "weakness" of the Russian power will be naturally destroyed. However hard the British missionaries tried to find sympathy and understanding with Aissors, they are not loved despite the British money influxes. Therefore the British influence in the event of Russian fast advancing in the region would go down eventually. Otherwise the British influence might be very high enough just to convince local Christians and Kurds that we should really be weak in the knee.

As a matter of the fact, Turks are afraid of both Kurds and Aissors at the time. They are trying not to antagonize Kurds, therefore they just close their eyes on Kurdish raids onto Aissorian villages for plunder. On the other hand, Turks are afraid to suppress Aissors openly as they know that Europe and especially England will come to protect them. Therefore they even try to set a feud between Aissors supporting the Anglican Church Mission against the Catholic mission and vice versa. This method seems to bring them a success. Mar Shimmun seems to be losing his grip on power.

When I set on a journey to the Nestorian mountains, the Turkish military administration was alarmed. They immediately sent out Emrulla-bei, the General Staff-major to Kochanis to follow me. He was commissioned to find out why I was going there. In Kochanis the commissioner demanded that the Mar Shimmun family should not deal with me and not allow me to go up in the mountains. In case they will, they will be sorry as he put it

From what has been said above I can conclude that only rapid movement of our troops might bring us some good success. I mean we must try to get the local people to rise against Turkey, giving them arms and squad leaders. Then we should diminish the British role by delivering it a hard blow. And in the end if only Kurds will rise along with Aissors, we, I suppose, even might be able to strike another blow to Turkey as we, too, believe that all Arabian tribes will probably follow by all Arabian tribes.

In other words our rapid movement inside Turkey will be like setting the wick to the powder magazine

1 Newsletters from Caucasian Military District, 1904, nos 3-4

Report on a journey to the Hakkiari mountains in the Van Region

By R.I. Termen